Labkafe has made significant advancements in providing high-quality school laboratory equipment. Our ISC Physics Lab Equipment Package is specifically designed to address the challenges schools face when purchasing a comprehensive physics lab setup.

Features of the ISC Physics Lab Equipment Package

This package is ideal for conducting all ISC Physics experiments for classes 11 and 12. It includes:

• All necessary Physics lab equipment, apparatus, and instruments as per the ISC syllabus.
• Equipment designed for a class of 30 students to use simultaneously.
• Completely FREE OF COST Detailed Project Report, as per your requirements, showing laboratory layout and planning.
• Onsite installation and demonstration of the equipment and apparatus.
• LK-secured products with a one-year onsite warranty and technical support.
• Coverage for any damage during transit.
• Provision of GST receipt
• Worldwide shipping
• Pay online or upon delivery

Download the detailed list of ISC physics lab equipment.

General Rules for ISC Physics Practical

Follow these rules when instructing students, in addition to using reliable, high quality lab equipment:

• Ensure the polarity of cells and meters, their range, zero error, and least count are checked before use.
• Record all observations consistently, adhering to the least count of the instrument.
• Always include correct units with recorded observations.
• Avoid parallax errors during measurements.
• Round off all calculations to the specified decimal place or significant figures, as directed in the question paper.
• Follow all instructions and guidelines provided in the equipment manual. 

Download the complete ISC Physics practical syllabus for class 11 and 12.

The post ISC Physics Lab Equipment Package- Complete Apparatus List appeared first on Labkafe Blog.

The specifications of the Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE) mandate the establishment of a composite science lab, with the following guidelines:

• Chapter 4 of NEP 2020 emphasizes experiential learning at all stages of science education to ensure holistic, integrated, and engaging learning.
• Chapter 7, Para 7.5 of NEP 2020 highlights the need for well-equipped science laboratories to strengthen science education.
• Para 12.1 of NEP 2020 stresses that effective learning requires an engaging curriculum, continuous formative assessment, and comprehensive student support.

The specifics of the composite science lab include:

• Schools can establish a single Composite Skill Lab of 600 sq ft or two separate labs of 400 sq ft each.
• A single lab caters to classes 6-12, while two labs can divide classes into 6-10 and 11-12.
• New CBSE schools must set up these labs to obtain affiliation.
• Existing CBSE schools have three years to comply with the lab setup requirement.
• Labs must include all essential machinery and tools necessary for teaching relevant skills.

Model of the composite science lab by CBSE. Get your FREE lab plan with our composite science lab package today!

The objectives and outcomes of setting up the composite science lab package are:

• Understand concepts, principles, theories, and laws of the physical world appropriate to cognitive development stages.
• Acquire and apply scientific methods such as observation, questioning, planning investigations, and data analysis.
• Conduct experiments, including quantitative measurements, to support scientific understanding.
• Cultivate scientific temper, including objectivity, critical thinking, and freedom from fear or prejudice.
• Foster natural curiosity, creativity, and an aesthetic appreciation of science.

Download the detailed list of Composite Science Lab Apparatus for FREE.

Each and every component is fulfilled by the Labkafe Composite Science Lab Package.

The Labkafe composite science lab package incorporates all the elements mandated by the CBSE board. To set up your own CBSE composite science lab, download the apparatus list for FREE by filling up the form. For any doubts, feel free to schedule a FREE lab consultation with our lab experts!

The post Composite Science Lab Package- Complete Apparatus List appeared first on Labkafe Blog.

1.Clear your basics when preparing for a practical examination

Practical examinations might seem like a separate segment altogether, but they are deeply interconnected with the theoretical lessons taught in class. Theory helps students grasp the fundamental concepts, understand key principles, and then apply them practically. If students fail to understand the basics, it becomes very difficult to perform well in the practical exam. Therefore, focus on mastering the fundamentals during theoretical lessons. 

Don’t try to memorize concepts; instead, understand how things work and practice exercises thoroughly. This will help you handle practical exams with ease. Always remember that theory comes before practice—both are equally important, but one isn’t useful without the other. Use online resources when textbooks fall short, for bite-sized content that aids visualization.

2. Understanding experimental concepts during preparation

The next step after mastering basic theory is relating it to practical classes. Practical classes are held in separate modules for a reason: to ensure that students learn how to bridge the gap between theory and experiments. First, read everything in the lab manual carefully. If you have doubts, wait for the lessons to begin. A school or college practical lesson will not only demonstrate the experiment but also explain the material in the lab manual. 

By the end of the lesson, both the manual and the teacher’s explanations should be crystal clear. If you have any doubts, don’t hesitate to raise them during class. This will ensure your understanding of the experimental concepts is complete.

3. Perform the experiments yourself when preparing for a practical examination

When you are given the opportunity, make the most of it. Study the apparatus carefully, relate it to the manual as much as possible, and then to your instructor’s lessons. Follow the steps precisely and wait for accurate results. Always remember to follow all the precautions mentioned in the manual and by your teacher. If the experiment is performed correctly, you should obtain the expected result. 

Don’t worry if you don’t get it at first; ask your instructor. Mistakes can happen initially, and that’s how you learn. In fact, making mistakes early on teaches you what to be cautious about during the exam, so you don’t waste valuable time. If you perform experiments diligently and as instructed, you will develop the skill and confidence to perform them effectively in the exam laboratory.

4. The benefit of additional knowledge when preparing for a practical examination

Beyond the literature in your lab manual, your teacher will provide additional insights, and you might have doubts as well. Make sure to ask your teacher and note everything down in your notebook—you never know what information might be useful later. Your teacher’s insights may prove essential, especially during a Viva Voce. Ensure that you understand everything about the theoretical basics of the experiment. 

Look up extra information using reliable sources on the internet, like this YouTube channel from Labkafe. Follow bite-sized content, such as YouTube shorts, to quickly grasp concepts. Clear any knowledge gaps and research potential Viva questions. Record their answers in a notebook and revise them regularly to stay prepared for the exam. Additional information beyond the textbook is particularly useful for oral exams.

Nerves of steel will seal the deal

If you have followed the blueprint above, your chances of success will increase manifold. Remember to keep calm, rest assured that you have prepared your best and carry the essential items with you: your revision notebook and any lab safety gear you might need, like aprons. To purchase them, visit here.

During the exam, mishaps do occur, so follow precautions and be careful. Don’t lose your patience if your experimental results do not yield expected outcomes. Remember the range of values you obtained in each experiment during classes; this will help you understand the correctness of your results during the exam. 

If your experiment does not work in the exam, be sure to ask the examiner for assistance. Don’t worry if they seem strict; they will help you in times of distress. Be obedient and follow their instructions. Exams seldom require you to memorize the entire protocol, so even if you forget something, focus on the basics, and you will find a resolution.

Stay focused, prepare well, and ace your exams! All the best!

If you are looking forward to set-up or upgrade your Science Lab, contact us today!

The post How to prepare for a practical examination? appeared first on Labkafe Blog.

Basic Elements of the Modern Periodic Table Chart

The Modern Periodic Table has 18 vertical columns, called groups, and 7 horizontal rows, called periods. Each element in a group has the same number of valence (outer shell) electrons, resulting in similar chemical properties across the group. 

As we move down a group, the number of electron shells increases, while the number of valence electrons remains constant. In contrast, moving from left to right across a period increases the number of valence electrons by one, as the atomic number also increases by one unit.

In the third period of the Modern Periodic Table, for example, elements like Na, Mg, Al, Si, P, S, Cl, and Ar are organized based on the filling of electrons in the K, L, and M shells. The maximum number of electrons each shell can hold is calculated by the formula 2n², where “n” is the shell number from the nucleus.

For instance, the K shell holds 2 electrons (since 2 × 1² = 2), giving the first period 2 elements, while the L shell holds 8 electrons (2 × 2² = 8), giving the second period 8 elements. Although the M shell can hold up to 18 electrons (2 × 3² = 18), only 8 are filled in the third period due to the limitation on the outermost shell.

Trends Observed in the Modern Periodic Table Chart- Periodic Table Properties

Valency:

The valency of an element is based on the number of valence electrons in its outermost shell. Across a period, valency increases as the number of valence electrons increases from left to right and then decreases. In a group, valency remains the same because the number of valence electrons does not change.

Valency variation across a period. Source- CREST Olympiads

Valency constant down a group. Source- Chemistry LibreTexts

Atomic Size:

Atomic size, defined as the distance between the nucleus and the outermost shell, varies across the table. Moving left to right along a period, the atomic radius decreases due to an increase in nuclear charge, which pulls electrons closer to the nucleus, reducing atomic size. Down a group, however, atomic size increases because additional electron shells increase the distance between the nucleus and the outermost electrons, despite the increased nuclear charge.

Atomic radii across the periodic table. Source- surfguppy 

Metallic and Non-metallic Character:

Metals like Na and Mg are on the left side of the table, while non-metals like sulfur and chlorine are on the right. Metalloids, such as silicon, fall in the middle, exhibiting properties of both metals and non-metals. A zig-zag line on the table separates metals from non-metals. Elements like boron, silicon, germanium, arsenic, antimony, tellurium, and polonium lie along this line and are classified as metalloids due to their intermediate properties.

Reactivity:

As effective nuclear charge on valence electrons increases across a period, elements are less likely to lose electrons, reducing metallic character. Conversely, down a group, the distance of the outer electrons from the nucleus increases. This makes it easier to lose electrons thus enhancing metallic character. Non-metals, being electronegative, tend to gain electrons to form bonds. This trend places non-metals towards the top right of the Periodic Table.

Oxide Nature:

Predicting the nature of oxides is also possible from periodic trends. Generally, metallic oxides are basic, whereas non-metallic oxides are acidic, aligning with the positions of metals and non-metals on the table.

How to memorize the Periodic Table Chart?

The best way to memorize the periodic table chart is through visualization. Use interesting mnemonics to aid memorization or consider purchasing a model like this. Our experts will guide you every step of the way!

Download a FREE PDF of the PERIODIC TABLE!

Keep it on your table, and glance at it during your free time. The attractive colors and tactile sensation of the model will help you retain the names of elements easily.

LOOKING TO SET-UP A CHEMISTRY LAB? WE CAN HELP!

The post The Modern Periodic Chart – Periodic Table Trends and Properties appeared first on Labkafe Blog.

Kinetic and potential energy are a function of work. It is defined as the product of the force applied on a body and the displacement of the body caused by this force. Mathematically, it is expressed as:

W = F × d

where W represents work, F is force, and d is displacement. Work occurs when a force causes a body to move. In fact, work is done by the force acting on the body.

This image demonstrates the concept of work: it shows how work is the product of the force and the displacement of the body from the initial point A to the final point B.

It is interesting to note that if d is zero, then the work done is also zero. This means that when a force is applied but there is no displacement, no work is done, regardless of the force’s magnitude.

So, if you push a wall but cannot move it, even if you feel tired, you haven’t done any work—according to physics!

When Hercules stopped a moving boulder with his shoulder, did he do work? Yes, he did negative work. In this case, the direction of the force he applied was opposite to the direction of the boulder’s displacement, resulting in negative work.

Work is always measured in joules (J), which is a product of Newtons and meters.

Now, the question is, can a moving body do work? By virtue of its motion, the answer is yes. A moving body can do work because it can use its kinetic energy.

What is kinetic energy?

Energy is stored work. In other words, it is the energy within a body that can be used to perform work. So, when a body is moving, it possesses kinetic energy, which it can use to do work. Kinetic energy exists because of the motion of the body. As long as the body is moving, it has kinetic energy.

Kinetic Energy (KE) = 1/2 mv²

where KE represents kinetic energy, m is the mass of the object, and v is its velocity.

Hence, velocity is a measure of kinetic energy, or it contributes to kinetic energy. The work-energy theorem relates the concepts of kinetic energy to work. Work is done when the kinetic energy of a body changes. In other words, the difference between the initial and final kinetic energy equals the work done.

For example, when you push a rolling ball up a slope, it loses kinetic energy as its speed decreases and eventually reaches zero. During this process, the ball does work, and kinetic energy transforms into work done.

Can kinetic energy be negative?

From the equation above, we can see that kinetic energy depends on the mass of the body and the square of its velocity. Since mass can never be negative and is always finite, and the square of velocity is always positive, kinetic energy is always a positive quantity, regardless of the direction of motion. Therefore, kinetic energy depends on the speed of the body, not its velocity.

Is kinetic energy the only form of energy a body can possess? What about stationary bodies—can they not possess energy to do work? Of course, they can. Stationary bodies can possess various forms of energy, such as heat energy, chemical energy, or muscular energy.

What is potential energy?

In this discussion, we will focus on a type of energy known as potential energy, which is an umbrella term that includes all these other forms. Potential energy is stored in a body due to its position, often by virtue of its height. Among these forms, the one we will demonstrate is gravitational potential energy, which is especially important in understanding stored energy in a body.

Gravitational Potential Energy (PE) = m × g × h 

Where:

m is the mass of the object,

g is the acceleration due to gravity (typically 9.8 m/s² on Earth),

h is the height of the object above a reference point.

Can potential energy be negative?

A good example of negative potential energy is electrons orbiting around the nucleus and planets orbiting the Sun. Attractive forces, like gravity or electromagnetism, hold these toward a central point, requiring energy for them to escape their orbits. This binding energy is called negative potential energy.

Transformation of potential energy into kinetic energy

We have learned that kinetic energy is capable of doing work. So, kinetic energy can be used to achieve work. For example, when you push a moving ball to roll up a slope, it uses its speed to move upward and effectively does work. But what about a body raised to a height—can it also achieve work? Can it move up a slope using its speed or convert its gravitational potential energy into work?

While this isn’t directly possible, gravitational potential energy (or simply potential energy) first converts into kinetic energy, which can then be used to do work. How does potential energy convert into kinetic energy? When you release a ball from a certain height, it falls and gains speed. This increase in speed boosts its kinetic energy, allowing it to do work.

For example, a ball raised to a certain height can roll down a slope, then use the speed gained on the downward slope to climb an upward slope. In this way, potential energy can ultimately be used to achieve work.

The formula showing the conversion of potential energy to kinetic energy is as follows:

m × g × h = 1/2 × m × v²

where:

m is the mass of the object,

g is the acceleration due to gravity,

h is the height (initial potential energy),

v is the final velocity (related to the kinetic energy gained).

Thus, as potential energy converts into kinetic energy, it increases the speed of the body. This speed then enables it to do work, as demonstrated by the Kinetic-Potential energy model by Labkafe here.

Example of how potential energy affects kinetic energy

In the above model, the straight slope gives the ball a certain amount of potential energy, which converts into kinetic energy as the ball descends, giving it speed.

Conversely, on the curved slope, fascinating energy transformations take place (follow stages 1,2 and 3). In the first half, as the ball descends, it gains velocity due to the conversion of potential energy into kinetic energy. This speed enables the ball to climb the upward slope that follows.

Balls are released at the same instant from starting point.

Balls in motion along the two paths.

Ball following the curved path reaches the end point first.

However, when the ball begins its descent again, it no longer has an uphill slope to slow it down. Instead, it moves onto a downhill section, which allows it to gain even more speed. This added boost, combined with the increased height of the second slope, enables the ball on the curved path to reach the endpoint faster than the ball on the straight slope.

This scenario demonstrates how the transformation of potential energy into kinetic energy gives the ball on the curved slope an advantage. The curved slope allows the ball to maintain and build upon its speed, helping it reach the endpoint before the ball on the straight slope.

How does experimental demonstration help?

This apparatus from Labkafe demonstrates how visualizing kinetic and potential energy is essential to truly understand these core energy concepts. With this model, students gain a hands-on understanding, and teachers have an effective tool to explain the critical role of energy transformations.

Incorporate this demonstration kit into your curriculum to give students a clearer grasp of how work, kinetic energy, and potential energy interconnect. This is a must-have resource for secondary schools aiming to deepen students’ understanding of energy dynamics in a tangible way.

Contact our Lab Experts for a quote today!

The post How to Teach Kinetic and Potential Energy? appeared first on Labkafe Blog.

A pendulum is a fascinating device that consists of a ball-shaped mass, known as the “bob,” suspended by a theoretically massless string from a fixed point. An extension of this is the coupled pendulum, which we shall study in a while. When you displace this bob from its starting position, it begins to swing back and forth in a smooth, predictable arc. This swinging, or oscillation, is driven by gravity, with each swing covering a distance called the “amplitude.” The time it takes for the pendulum to complete one full swing is known as the “time period.” The inverse of this value is called the “frequency of oscillation”, which indicates the number of oscillations of the pendulum per second. When set in motion, the pendulum swings continuously due to its inertia, maintaining a steady rhythm that has proven invaluable in timekeeping.

How do pendulums work?

Interestingly, a pendulum’s time period and frequency depend on the length of the string and the pull of gravity. They do not depend on the bob’s mass. For example, if you replace a sponge ball with a metal gong, their time period will remain the same. This happens regardless of their difference in mass, as long as the length of the string and the acceleration due to gravity remain the same.

The formula for time period T (and frequency f) shows why this is the case. 

T= 1/f=2π√L/g 

Where L=length of the string and g= acceleration due to gravity. Hence these are the factors that affect T and f. 

What is a coupled pendulum?

In a coupled pendulum setup, two simple pendulums are connected by a string or a solid rod, creating a fascinating interaction. This connection introduces complexity, making it ideal for studying unique physical phenomena. A single pendulum traditionally keeps time in classic clocks. However, a pendulum setup can also measure gravitational acceleration. This acceleration varies slightly across different locations on Earth. By observing variables like the period (T) and the length (L) of the pendulum, we can calculate gravitational acceleration precisely using the known formula given above. However, a coupled pendulum can be an excellent tool for studying and verifying various physical phenomena, as we’ll explore below. 

A coupled pendulum. Source- Physics Forums 

Theory of a coupled pendulum

It beautifully demonstrates several physical phenomena. When you set one pendulum in motion by displacing it from its resting position, it continues to oscillate due to inertia of motion. This motion then influences the second pendulum, causing it to oscillate as well. Interestingly, as the first pendulum’s amplitude gradually decreases, the second pendulum’s amplitude increases. This transfer continues until the second pendulum oscillates with the same amplitude as the first. However, the process reverses, leading to a back-and-forth exchange of energy between the two pendulums. Eventually, this alternating motion fades, and both pendulums come to a stop. 

Verifying theories of physics with coupled oscillation

This helps us demonstrate the following physical phenomenon-

Resonance in a coupled pendulum

When you set a pendulum in motion, it oscillates at a specific, unchanging frequency, known as its resonant frequency. Interestingly, even if you increase the amplitude (the height of each swing), the time period or frequency remains constant. This frequency is determined solely by the length of the string. For any pendulum with a fixed length, the oscillation frequency stays the same, regardless of amplitude.

The resonant frequency is a natural frequency that’s unique to a particular object—like this pendulum. When an object oscillates at its resonant frequency, it reaches maximum oscillation. At resonance, energy transfers most efficiently between objects vibrating at the same frequency, creating the strongest and most sustained oscillations.

A coupled pendulum setup demonstrates this concept clearly. Since both pendulums have the same string length, they oscillate at the same resonant frequency, allowing them to resonate together effectively. When the first pendulum begins to oscillate, it transfers energy through the connecting beam at the top. This energy transfer is highly efficient because it occurs at their resonant frequency.

As the first pendulum swings, it causes the second pendulum to increase in amplitude. This process continues until all the energy from the first pendulum is transferred to the second. At that point, the second pendulum oscillates with the same amplitude as the first. This complete transfer of energy showcases the power of resonance, which the fixed lengths of both pendulums in this setup make possible.

Conservation of energy in a coupled pendulum 

The law of conservation of energy states that energy can transform from one form to another, but it cannot be created or destroyed. The coupled pendulum clearly demonstrates this principle. As the first pendulum transfers energy to the second, and vice versa, we observe the amplitudes of both pendulums gradually decrease over time. Energy transfers efficiently during this exchange. However, it’s important to note that there is a loss of energy in the process.

Friction with the air causes some energy to dissipate as heat, leading to a loss of energy rather than a full transfer between the pendulums. The total energy within the system remains conserved, meaning it doesn’t vanish. However, it transforms into other forms, such as thermal energy due to friction. Therefore, while the law of conservation of energy holds true, friction and heat generation affect the dynamic system. They contribute to the overall energy transformations at play.

Potential energy to kinetic energy in a swinging pendulum

When you raise the pendulum to a certain height and displace it to the side, it gains potential energy (PE). As the pendulum oscillates and reaches the lowest point in its swing, the system completely converts potential energy into kinetic energy (KE). At the highest points of oscillation, potential energy is highest, and the pendulum is momentarily at rest. Here, the kinetic energy is lowest. At the lowest point of its swing, kinetic energy is at its maximum, while potential energy is at its minimum. This continuous transformation between potential and kinetic energy is a fundamental aspect of the pendulum’s motion. It illustrates the principles of energy conservation in action.

Transformation of potential energy into kinetic energy and vice versa in a pendulum. Source – StudySmarter

Wave motion of a swinging pendulum

Wave motion involves the repeated oscillation of particles. Sound waves arise from the oscillation of air particles. Water waves, such as transverse waves, form when we drop a pebble into water. The pendulum also exhibits wave motion, and this concept becomes evident when we explore it further. Our blog on wave motion explains this in detail. The image provided here illustrates the oscillations of a pendulum about its mean position.

The wave motion of a pendulum. Source- The Physics classroom.

Why do you need a coupled pendulum?

The coupled pendulum demonstrates the laws of physics beautifully, showcasing multiple phenomena. These concepts are often abstract and challenging to visualize. However, this pattern and blog aim to make them clearer for students. To support this, Labkafe has created a coupled pendulum model that allows you to demonstrate four unique, interdisciplinary concepts in physics. These demonstrations help students strengthen their ability to make connections across various principles. 

Contact our lab experts today to get amazing demonstration models for your science classrooms! 

The post How to Teach the Concept of a Coupled Pendulum? appeared first on Labkafe Blog.

Essential lab safety enforcement in educational environments is crucial to prevent accidents and injuries. Proper conduct, discipline, and supervision promote accountability and are essential lab safety elements. Additionally, encouraging hazard reporting without fear fosters a culture of safety. Attending to equipment and maintaining clear exits ensure a secure atmosphere, enhancing both learning and the well-being of students and staff.

Even simple mistakes, like the slippage of glass apparatus, can spread shards into unexpected areas. Rushing during cleanup can lead to skin injuries, and minor contaminants handled carelessly may cause infections. A small piece of broken glass can lead to serious consequences, significantly highlighting the importance of preventive measures. Good quality equipment mitigates accidents, like the ones here from Labkafe.

Why is Essential Lab Safety Critical for Teachers and Students?

Both students and teachers play crucial roles in maintaining safety rules.

Responsibilities of Teachers in maintaining essential lab safety

Teachers should lead by example, therefore encouraging students to follow safety rules by being vigilant about hazards and taking appropriate precautions. They must create a supportive atmosphere where students feel comfortable reporting incidents. This proactive approach helps prevent serious accidents.

Laboratory equipment must undergo regular inspections and maintenance. Teachers and administrators must ensure proper documentation for reference when issues arise. You must install essential safety equipment, such as eyewash stations, safety showers, fire extinguishers, and fire blankets. Conducting mock drills reinforces safety practices and procedures.

If safety equipment malfunctions, teachers must promptly address repairs to prevent accidents. Teachers are the final line of protection for students, making their role in maintaining discipline and safety critical. Coordination is key, especially in crowded labs or when sharing equipment.

In emergencies, all personnel must know the locations of power, gas, and supply cut-off lines. You should establish evacuation plans and conduct regular drills to minimize uncertainty during emergencies. Additionally, you must keep first aid ready at all times. It is useful in situations where immediate respite is unavailable, such as cuts and scrapes, that might deteriorate into full blown infections in the absence of first aid. 

Responsibilities of Students in maintaining essential lab safety

Students must immediately report all accidents, injuries, or equipment breakage to the instructor. Labs should support students who own up to mistakes rather than hide them.

Long hair must be tied back to prevent fire hazards, and laboratory aprons should be worn, securing loose garments to avoid contact with fire or chemicals. Aprons help protect workers from accidental chemical spillage and fire hazards. Additionally, safety manuals and protocols must be followed and contact with chemicals must be avoided to protect the eyes and mouth. Goggles and gloves should be worn when required. Reckless behavior and consuming food or drinks in the lab are prohibited.

Common Essential Lab Safety Mistakes to Avoid

Labs often work with dangerous equipment, high-temperature substances, and toxic chemicals. Safety must be prioritized over cost to prevent harm. This requires commitment to proper use and maintenance of safety equipment, such as goggles and gloves, depending on the hazard.

Complacency can endanger personnel and compromise research integrity. Contaminated substrates can lead to invalid results, and improper disposal of hazardous waste may cause environmental damage. Comprehensive emergency training is essential to protect personnel during contingencies.

Conclusion

Three key takeaways from this discussion on essential lab safety:

• Safety requires financial and disciplinary commitment.
• Investing in safety equipment and training is essential for mitigating hazards.
• Lab safety involves protecting fellow lab mates and the environment, ensuring ethical and responsible research.

Eyewash station (source- heavy.com)

Emergency shower (source- antigua.desertcart.com)

Safety goggles (source-medimart.com)

Labkafe supports the research community by providing essential safety equipment including eyewash stations, safety goggles, and emergency shower stations to handle chemical spills. Reach out to our lab experts today!

The post Essential Lab Safety: What Not to Do in a Science Lab appeared first on Labkafe Blog.

Fields Requiring Composite Skill Lab in Enhancing Learning

1. STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics)

Why Do They Need It?

The rapid advancements in STEM fields demand that students not only understand theoretical concepts but also engage in practical, hands-on learning. Therefore, Composite Skill Labs equipped with robotics kits, coding software, 3D printers, and electronic tools which provide students with the opportunity to bring their classroom lessons to life are a must.

Benefits

Students can build and program robots, design 3D models, and experiment with circuits, thereby developing critical thinking, problem-solving, and innovative skills.

Composite skill lab (creative visualization)

2. Arts and Design

Why They Need It

The role of a skill lab in enhancing learning is undeniable. Creativity is as important as technical knowledge in today’s world. Arts and Design fields such as graphic design, photography, music production, and filmmaking thrive in environments where students have access to the right tools and technologies.

Benefits

Composite Skill Labs enable students to explore their artistic talents and technical skills simultaneously, working on projects like digital art, filmmaking, and music composition, thus preparing them for careers in creative industries.

3. Vocational Skill Lab in Enhancing Learning

Why They Need It

The importance of vocational training in carpentry, plumbing, electrical wiring, and similar trades cannot be overstated, especially for students aiming for careers in these areas. 

Benefits

Composite Skill Labs provide the perfect setting for hands-on learning in these fields, therefore allowing students to practice and perfect their skills in a safe and controlled environment, which is crucial for their future job readiness.

4. Entrepreneurship

Why They Need It

Entrepreneurship education requires a unique environment where students can brainstorm, prototype, and develop business ideas. 

Benefits

In a Composite Skill Lab, students can access mentorship, market research tools, and collaborative spaces that are essential for nurturing entrepreneurial skills. Hence, activities like developing business plans, creating prototypes, and pitching ideas help in building a strong foundation for future business leaders.

5. Skill Labs Enhancing Learning in Health and Wellness

Why They Need It

Understanding health and wellness is vital for students, both personally and professionally. Whether it’s learning about nutrition, fitness, or mental health, practical experience in these areas is invaluable.

Benefits

Composite Skill Labs can be used to teach students how to prepare healthy meals, design fitness programs, and practice mindfulness. Therefore, labs also offer training in first aid, which is a crucial life skill.

6. Environmental Science and Sustainability

Why They Need It

As the world grapples with environmental challenges, educating students about sustainability is more important than ever. 

Benefits

The Composite Skill Lab is enhancing learning by equipping students with the tools to conduct experiments and projects related to ecology, renewable energy, and conservation, therefore making them aware of tools needed in environmental science research. In summary, this hands-on approach encourages students to become proactive in finding solutions to environmental problems.

7. Digital Literacy and Media Skill Labs

Why They Need It

In the digital age, media literacy and the ability to navigate the online world are essential skills. Therefore, students must learn how to create and share digital content responsibly and effectively.

Benefits

Composite Skill Labs, focused on digital literacy and media, provides resources for students to produce podcasts, create websites, in addition to engagement in safe online communication. These skills are critical in preparing students for the digital workforce in addition to inculcating responsible online behavior.

School lab constructed by Labkafe

In essence, the introduction of Composite Skill Labs marks a significant step forward in the educational journey of CBSE schools, one that promises to equip students with the skills and knowledge necessary for success in the 21st century.
Contact Labkafe’s team of experts for a free lab consultation for your schools.

The post How are Composite Skill Labs Enhancing Learning Across Multiple Disciplines? appeared first on Labkafe Blog.

Among the major laboratory experiments in the class XI-XII biology practical are the Macro Nutrient Tests. Also commonly known as food tests for class 11 or 12, this is actually a group of five tests ‒ one each for starch, glucose, sucrose, protein, and fat. Today, we will describe each of those tests for your convenience.

The macro nutrient tests or food tests for classes 11-12 are highly important in all education boards including CBSE, ICSE, ISC, IGCSE, IB, and state boards like  WBCHSE biology practical syllabus . These tests are included in all of their curriculums, with slight or no variation. 

There are more than one way to do some tests in this group. Some schools do all of the tests, and some just prefer one. We will show you the most common food tests done in school. These are:

• For starch: iodine test
• For glucose: benedict test and fehling test
• For sucrose: sucrose test (which is a variation of benedict)
• For protein: biuret test (very important!)
• For fat: paper droplet test

Note that in the syllabus you may note more tests like xanthoproteic test, Millon’s reagent test, and Sudan III test. These are very uncommon for various reasons ‒ materials are hard to come by, the test is very difficult to conduct, or as in the last case ‒ reagent is prohibitively expensive. The tests above are the most common experiments you will find in school biology labs.

Now let’s get into each test.

Iodine Test for Starch

Starch is among the most important carbohydrates, so this test is also called the carbohydrate test (though not all carbs are starches) due to oversimplification. Starches are made of polysaccharide and glucoside, and they are generally found as food reserves in plants ‒ in roots or seeds. The most common examples of plant starch reserves are potato, rice and wheat ‒ our main bulk of food. You will also find plenty of prepared foodstuff rich with starch, like bread or biscuits. We will use biscuits today.

Ingredients required:

• Test tubes
• Dropper
• Small beaker (50 ml)
• Iodine solution (comes prepared)
• Food sample (a biscuit in this case)

How to perform iodine starch test

1. Take a little part of the biscuit (just a pinch) and crush it thoroughly. 
2. Put it in a test tube and add some distilled water (plain RO water will work as well). About 3-4 ml should suffice. Shake well to make a suspended solution. Our liquid looks cloudy white.
3. Take a little bit of iodine solution in a clean dropper, and pour 2-3 drops of it into the test tube.
4. The liquid inside the test tube should start changing color immediately. Depending upon the concentration of the sample, you should be able to see a bluish-black or almost black color. This indicates the presence of starch.

Explanation of the iodine test

Iodine solution is generally yellow or amber colored. When it comes into contact with starch-like compounds, the smaller iodine atoms slip into the larger starch molecules. They have a complicated relationship. Anyway, these starch-iodine complex molecules look blackish blue ‒ that is the color you see in the tube.

Benedict Reagent Test for Glucose

Glucose is called a ‘powerhouse chemical’ for the body, because it is THE compound which breaks down to provide energy for the body. It is naturally present in sweet fruits and vegetables like bananas. Most foodstuffs do not naturally have glucose, but those few that do, can be detected quite easily with the Benedict’s Reagent.

The Benedict’s Reagent’s main ingredient is copper sulphate solution, but it is spiked with sodium citrate and sodium carbonate. You can find it easily in our  biology lab packages . 

Ingredients required

• Test tubes
• Dropper
• Test tube holder
• Water bath setup
• Sample solution or water extract (we used OTC glucose powder)
• Benedict’s reagent

How to perform Benedict’s test for glucose

1. First, you need to prepare the water extract (or solution or suspension) of the sample in a clean test tube. In our case it was easy since clinical glucose forms clean solutions clearly. 
2. Pull out a little of Benedict’s solution from its bottle using the dropper. Pour 5-6 drops of it in the test tube.  It would, of course, depend upon how much of the sample solution you made. Anyway, keep adding till you get a nice light blue solution.
3. Set up a water bath. You would need the whole setup for a water bath, like a bunsen burner, tripod, wireframe, beaker etc. You can also use an actual  water bath machine . If you don’t have access to those, you can, technically, use a  spirit lamp directly, but that’s not recommended.
4. Heat the test tube slowly in your water bath (or lamp, carefully). The color of the solution in the tube should start to darken.
5. Observe the color. It should change from blue to green, and then turn reddish and opaque. With time, you should be getting a brick-red precipitate which will slowly fall to the bottom of the tube. This is conclusive proof that there is indeed glucose in the solution.

Explanation of the Benedict’s test

The principal element in Benedict’s reagent is copper, specifically, Cupric ions. With two empty spaces in the outer orbit, highly charged. And in glucose-type compounds there are aldehydic or ketonic groups, which are reducing elements. Meaning, they are ready to reduce highly-charged cations to a lower level. 

Obviously, these two opposites attract each other strongly. The glucose gives one oxygen to the copper cations, reducing them from cupric to cuprous. It itself changes into gluconic acid. And the copper? It happily attaches to the free electron and forms cuprous oxide, which is brick-red in color and insoluble in water. That is what you see falling to the bottom of the test tube.

The two sodium salts in the reagent act as intermediary agents for these interactions.

Fehling’s Test for Glucose

Another way to detect reducing sugars is the Fehling’s test, with Fehling’s solution A and B. Solution A is basically a 7% CuSO4 solution. Solution B is potassium sodium tartrate made highly alkaline using KOH. 

They are available in the market, but they are also easy to prepare on site which is the precise reason Fehling’s test still exists. Otherwise it would be overshadowed by Benedict’s. Anyway, Fehling’s test is still important in schools and so we will explain it here.

Ingredients required

• Test tubes
• Dropper
• Test tube holder
• Fehling’s reagent A (also may be known as Fehling’s solution 1)
• Fehling’s reagent B (also may be known as Fehling’s solution 2)
• Water bath setup
• Sample solution or water extract (we used OTC glucose powder)

How to perform Fehling’s Test for Glucose

It isn’t much different from Benedict’s test. The difference being in the number of steps where you have to prepare the final solution. We used glucose powder as the sample.

1. Prepare the sample solution or water extract of the sample. About 4-5 ml would suffice, of 5% strength would suffice.
2. Add 2-3 drops of Fehling’s solution A to the test tube. The liquid in the tube should turn light blue, the color of copper sulphate solution.
3. Now add the same amount of Fehling’s solution B to the test tube. After a little shake the tube’s liquid should turn dark blue. 
4. Quickly start heating the tube in the water bath (or on a spirit lamp, carefully). Don’t let the solution rest or else the results may not turn as expected.
5. If the sample has glucose, the solution would turn brick-red ‒ and when kept still it would precipitate to the bottom of the tube.

Explaining Fehling’s test for glucose

Fehling’s test works more or less the same way as Benedict’s, with red cuprous oxide precipitate. The two Fehling’s solutions combine to make an unstable bistartarocuprate complex, which would turn into black cupric oxide precipitate if left alone for a while. That’s why we don’t let it stay; the Fehling test has to be done fast.

When a reducing sugar is present in the solution, it reacts with the bistartarocuprate complex to release the copper ions. They take an oxygen or hydroxyl ion from the aldehyde or ketone groups of the sugar, and turn into cuprous oxide which is brick red in color and not soluble in water. 

Which Glucose Test is Better ‒ Benedict’s or Fehling’s?

Fehling’s is the older experiment, from the 1850’s. It worked well till Benedict’s came, but then went out of favor at research labs because of its unstable nature. First of all, the mixed Fehling’s solution is unstable and will break up to produce cupric oxide soon. Secondly, Fehling’s B is also unstable and doesn’t last long in storage. 

But above all what lets down Fehling’s test  is that it works only in a strongly alkaline environment. So, if you want to find out if there is glucose in an acidic or even neutral solution, you’re fresh out of luck with Fehling. In a non-highly-alkaline environment, the copper ions won’t be easily reduced with Fehling, and there will be false positives, like from alcohol. 

There are other issues with Fehling’s test too. For example, it cannot detect aromatic aldehydes. Instead, you will have to use Benedict’s test in case you are serious about glucose tests.

Sucrose Test

Sucrose and similar sugars are non-reducing sugars, such as normal cane sugars that we consume every day. They won’t give a positive result in a standard glucose test like Benedict’s or Fehling’s. The trick is to first convert the non-reducing sugar to reducing sugar, and then do Benedict’s test (Fehling’s would be hard to do here ‒ you’ll understand why in a minute).

Ingredients required

• Test tubes
• Dropper
• Test tube holder
• Water bath setup
• Water extract of sample (we used general cane sugar)
• Concentrated hydrochloric acid
• Sodium hydroxide (or sodium bicarbonate) solution
• Benedict’s Reagent

How to perform the sucrose test

1. Prepare the water extract ( original solution ) of the  sucrose sample. Take nearly 5 ml of it in a clean dry test tube.
2. Add 3-4 drops of concentrated HCl to the test tube using the dropper. Gently stir the tube to mix well. Take care so that it does not touch your skin.
3. Set up your water bath and boil the tube for a couple of minutes.
4. Let the tube sit for a while to cool a bit. 
5. Now you have to neutralize this solution, as it is highly acidic now. Add sodium hydroxide solution drip by drip till have neutralized it completely. No worries if you’ve made it a bit alkaline too.
   1. TIP: use sodium bicarbonate instead of NaOH. You have to work by guessing with the hydroxide, but with the bicarbonate you will be able to see the neutralization process visibly. As long as there is acid in the solution, adding a drop of NaHCO3 to it will produce bubbly gas. 
6. Now just perform Benedict’s test as described above with this solution. If there was sucrose in the sample, the solution will finally produce brick-red precipitate when cooling off. Otherwise it would remain blue.

Explaining the sucrose test

The basic idea of the sucrose test is to break it down to glucose and fructose which gives positive results in the Benedict’s test. To do this, we hydrolyse the sample with hot HCl. This produces the reducing sugars ‒ but in turn also highly acidifies the solution which is not good at all for good Benedict’s results. So, we neutralise it using simple hydroxide or bicarbonates, and add Benedict’s reagent. Heating this will reduce the cupric ions of the reagent into cuprous oxide, which you get to see as the reddish-brown precipitate.

Biuret Test for Proteins

Proteins are the building blocks for much of our body, especially the muscly parts. That is why you need protein food most if you are bodybuilding and gaining muscle mass. Also, proteins repair any damaged body part and are very important while growing up.

To detect the presence of proteins in foodstuff there are various tests, but the biuret test is the most popular by far. The reason for it lies in the availability of its materials. Also, some of the other tests use very dangerous chemicals, not recommended for school use. 

Technically, you would be detecting peptide bonds present in the sample, which is the base of common edible proteins. It is basically an acid formed with carbonyl and amino groups. Our goal is to see if our testing chemicals (producing cupric ions) can form a complex compound with this.

Ingredients required

• Test tubes
• Dropper
• Biuret reagents:
  • 1% copper sulphate solution
  • 40% sodium hydroxide solution
• Sample solution or water extract (we used egg albumin)
• Water bath setup

How to do the biuret test for proteins

1. First, you have to prepare the biuret reagents ‒ that is, 1% CuSO4 and 40% NaOH solutions. It is possible that your laboratory may already have it prepared. If not, then you will have to carefully measure out the proper chemical amounts using a precision balance and make the solutions.
2. Take the sample (egg albumin, in our case) in a test tube, about 2-3 ml of it. 
3. Add 3-4 drops of the hydroxide solution into the test tube.
4. Add 2-3 drops of the copper sulphate solution into the test tube. The liquid should turn blue.
5. Shake the test tube properly to mix the ingredients. Let it stand for a while.
6. Now observe the color changes. It may take some time depending upon the concentration of the sample and the quality of the reagent. We got our results within 5-6 minutes.
7. If the solution turns pink, proteins are present in the sample.

Paper Droplet Test for Fat

Also called paper spot test, this is by far the simplest method of detecting there is any fat present in a given food item. All you need is a piece of thin (but opaque) piece of paper and a cover glass, with the sample. Since fats are basically oils, when you place the sample on the paper and press, the contact place on the paper should absorb the fat and turn somewhat transparent. 

Note: Of course, it is a little bit more work than that in the case of some samples. If your sample is very dry (like a peanut that we took), then just putting it flat on top of the paper won’t display anything. You will have to crush the hard sample and press it against the paper, so it can soak in the oil. 

Labkafe Biology Lab Setup

All of the Macro Nutrients Tests mentioned above, including those not described in the article, are possible using Labkafe’s  higher secondary level biology lab package . This package has all the chemicals, reagents, glassware, and support apparatus required for the class 11 food tests for CBSE ICSE State boards. If you need this package, or specific items from the package, then you can contact us at 9147163562 any time ‒ our sales rep will help you out. We can ship anywhere in India, and even supply outside India via resellers. Just fill up the contact form below and someone will have a chat with you and hash it out.

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One of the most common chemistry laboratory experiments in school laboratories is the Identification Reactions or salt analysis of inorganic salts. In these experiments, we analyze a given, unknown salt substance to figure out the cations and anions that make up the salt. You will have to perform various experiments step by step and note down the observations, and from them figure out which salt it was.

This massive class 12 practical class experiment can get pretty confusing to do. First, you have to prepare some sort of solution, and then try different things on it to see what happens. You have to record all of this. And then, from those notes, you have to finally decide what kind of ions may be present in the given salt.

This is a fairly difficult task for students that are just learning the secrets of chemistry. Fortunately, there are only a few salts available in most school labs and you can take advantage of that fact. So, today Labkafe Learning Center has brought to you the identification reactions of the most commonly used 10 salts available in school chemistry labs. 

We will arrange this analysis text in a rather unusual way. Generally, in textbooks, the reactions are categorized into per-group of cations and anions. Here instead we will give you three steps to identify each ion. 

The first would be a visual hint that will give you a clue about how that cation or anion may look like in a salt. The second is a preliminary test which gives a near-positive result for that ion, acting as a hint to go to the next step. And the third is a confirmatory test you should only perform if the preliminary test has come positive. If this third step also happens as described, then you can bet your unknown salt has that cation or anion in it!

This process is also called qualitative analysis. Let’s jump in! But first, you should know how to prepare the original solution on which you will perform most of these tests. If the salt is water-soluble, then you can mix it easily in cool or hot water. If that doesn’t work, you will have to try and dissolve it in light hydrochloric acid. This makes the Original Solution in salt analysis and identification reaction experiments.

First, we will list five of the most common cations that come in chemistry practical exams.

1. Copper [Cu2+]

Visual Hint:

A Cu2+ cation is a group 2 cation. Copper salts generally have a blue color. If you get a blueish salt, then you can go ahead and try the following salt identification tests.

Preliminary test: 

In the original solution, add a few drops of dilute hydrochloric acid and hydrogen sulfide to the solution. A black precipitate will form. 

Confirmation test:

Filter out the black precipitate you found in the previous step using filter paper. Now put it back into a clean tube and add ammonium hydroxide. It will dissolve the black thing and form a nice blue solution. 

2. Iron or Ferric [Fe3+]

Visual Hint:

Ferric salts are generally yellow, brown, or something in-between. A rust-colored salt can be pretty certainly ‒ well ‒ rust. But don’t go by that since rust is Ferrous, not Ferric. Better go to the next step with a brownish or yellowish salt. 

Preliminary test: 

There is no chemical test as the preliminary test for the Fe2+ or Fe3+ ions ‒ visual determination is the only way. Ferrous (Fe2+) salts would have a greenish tinge and Ferric (Fe3+) salts will have a brownish hue, that’s all. You have to do the confirmatory test to figure it out.

Confirmation test:

1. Make a small amount of watery solution of the given salt in a test tube. 
2. Add a couple of drops of concentrated nitric acid to the solution and shake a bit to mix it. 
3. Heat it on the bunsen burner and you’ll see something brown is forming in the solution in the tube. 
4. Get it out of the fire and let it cool for a bit. Add HCl and potassium ferrocyanide, a couple of drops each.
5. The solution starts dropping a blue precipitate.

3. Strontium [Sr2+]

Visual Hint:

Unfortunately, Strontium salts generally don’t have any special color or texture to speak of. Instead, they are better found in a flame test. Read about how to perform a flame test here. In the flame, Sr2+ ions give a good red color. Warning: don’t get confused with an orange-red flame color given by calcium cations.

Preliminary test: 

1. Prepare the original solution with the salt and acid, and then add ammonium carbonate to it. 
2. Further, add ammonium chloride and ammonium hydroxide. A white precipitate should form now. 
3. Add dilute acetic acid and stir it a bit. The white stuff should get dissolved.
4. Add a couple of drops of ammonium sulfate to the solution. Again a white precipitate will start falling.

Confirmation test:

Funny enough, the flame test is both the hint and confirmation for detecting the presence of strontium ions. A bright red flame will be seen in this case. (Again don’t get confused with the calcium ions).

4. Cobalt [Co2+]

Visual Hint:

Most cobalt salts are dark blue when dry. Some are brick-red. Cobalt chloride, for example, is powder blue when dry but when moist it gives a nice onion-ish color. In a flame test, Co2+ will give a pink flame.

Preliminary test: 

1. Prepare the original solution and add some solid ammonium chloride to it. 
2. Pass hydrogen sulfide gas through it. A black precipitate will fall. Note: the same will happen with Nickel ions! You have to do the next step.

Confirmation test:

1. Add solid ammonium chloride and liquid ammonium hydroxide to the original solution. Pour the latter some extra measure.
2. Pass hydrogen sulfide gas through the solution. A blue residue will fall.
3. Filter out the blue stuff and dissolve it in water in a new tube. 
4. Add acetic acid and potassium nitrite to the solution.
5. Heat the solution over the bunsen, gently. A yellow precipitate will start to form.

5. Ammonium [NH4+]

Visual Hint:

Most ammonium salts used in school labs are very much water-soluble but don’t have much in the way of color or texture ‒ that should be your first hint. Neither do they reveal anything in a flame test. 

Preliminary test: 

Sorry to say, NH4 ions don’t have any preliminary test either. You have to do a confirmatory test directly. Saves time, doesn’t it!

Confirmation test:

Put some sodium hydroxide in the original solution and add some Nessler’s reagent to it. Some yellow or brown dirt should start falling.

Now we can move on to the 5 most common anions that are given in the identification reaction tests. Unfortunately for anions, there are no special visual hints to be considered ‒ tests are the only way. 

6. Chloride [Cl-]

Preliminary test: 

1. Add a few drops of concentrated sulphuric acid to the given salt. A white foul-smelling gas should start coming out.
2. Dip a glass rod in ammonium hydroxide and move the wet end close to the top of the test tube. The smell of the gas should get more intensely pungent. 

Confirmation test:

If it’s a chloride salt then it should be soluble in water. Prepare a water-based original solution and do the following:

1. Add silver nitrate to the test tube. A white precipitate should form.
2. Filter out the white stuff above. Then try to dilute that in ammonium hydroxide. If it gets dissolved then it has Cl ions. 

7. Sulphate [SO42-]

Preliminary test: 

There are no preliminary tests for sulfate and phosphate ions, yay! Go straight to the confirmatory test step.

Confirmation test:

1. Add barium chloride solution to the original solution. A white precipitate should form. 
2. Filter out that precipitate and try to dissolve it in concentrated hydrochloric acid. It should not get dissolved if it has sulfate ions in it, everything else will be.

8. Nitrate [NO3-]

Preliminary test: 

Take some of the dry salt in a test tube and add just a couple of drops of concentrated sulfuric acid. If there are nitrate ions in there, you will see a brownish gas coming out with a very pungent smell.

Confirmation test:

1. Take the watery solution of the salt and add ferrous sulfate solution. 
2. Add just a single drop of concentrated nitric acid, very carefully and slowly. In fact, don’t drop the acid on the mix at all; instead, tilt the tube and put the drop of acid on the inside of the tube, and slowly let it roll to the mix. 
3. If you do it gently enough, there will be a brown ring formed at the point where the acid has touched the solution. 

9. Carbonate [CO32-]

Preliminary test: 

1. Take some of the given salt dry and put it in a test tube. Add a couple of drops of concentrated H2SO4 to it. You will find some gas coming out, but it won’t have any color or smell.
2. Pass that gas through some limewater. It should turn milky white.

Confirmation test:

If you add some magnesium sulfate to the watery original solution, it will give out a white precipitate. That signifies some carbonate in it.

10. Iodide [I-]

Preliminary test: 

Start with some dry salt in a test tube and put a little bit of concentrated sulphuric acid in it. A violet-colored gas should come out of the tube.

Confirmation test:

1. Take some watery solution of the given salt and silver nitrate to it. A silver precipitate should form.
2. Filter out that silvery stuff and try to make a solution of it in ammonium hydroxide. This silver precipitate of iodide salts will not dissolve.

Note: Since potassium iodide is the only salt with the I- anion available in school labs generally, you can take a shortcut. KI looks like a simple white powder that gets diluted in water very easily. So, if you get such a specimen, you should first do the preliminary test and see if you get the violet fumes. 

Conclusion

The class 12 chemistry practical salt analysis is extremely important. Learning properly, it is actually a good way to earn practical exam marks ‒ and to cement your understanding of the common chemicals. This systematic qualitative analysis of inorganic salts is a good way to recognize your way around a chemistry laboratory if you’re trying to build a career in chemistry. 

The identification reaction practical of class XII is done by separating the cations and anions (positive and negative ions) in a given salt compound. Chances are, it will have two of the above cations and anions in its compositions. When you’ve identified both of them carefully, construct the formula of the salt in question. Be careful about the valencies of each ion, they should match up perfectly! So, what are you waiting for? Grab your test tubes and let’s go!

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